AN ANALYSIS COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING

The title of this Independent Research is An analysis of communicative language teaching .The analysis that is carried out is focused only on the communication approach to students or pupils with various methods that will be given. The goal of Communicative Language Teaching is to have one’s students become communicatively competent. While this has been the stated goal of many of the other methods in the communicative approach the notion of what it takes to be communicatively competent is much expanded. Adherents of the communicative approach, which we will consider in this Analysis acknowledge that structures and vocabulary are important. However they feel that preparation for communication will be inadequate if only these are taught. Students may know the rules of language usage, but will be unable to use the language. When we communicate, we use the language to accomplish some function, such arguing, persuading, or promising. More over, we carry out these functions within a social context. A speaker will choose a particular way to express his argument not only based upon his intent and his level of emotion, but also on whom he is addressing and what his relationship with that person is. Furthermore, since communication is a process, it is sufficient for students to simply have knowledge of target language forms, meanings and functions. Students must be able to apply this knowledge in negotiating meaning. It is through the interaction between speaker and listener (or reader and writer) that meaning becomes clear. The listener gives the speaker feedbacks as to whether or not he understands what the speaker has said. In this way, the speaker can revise what he said and try to communicate his intend meaning again, if necessary.


INTRODUCTION
Language is a system for the expression of meaning. Communicative Languag Teaching is regarded more as an approach since the aims of CLT are ; a) to make the communicative competence the goal of language teaching and b) to develop procedures for the teaching of the four language skills that acknowledge the interdependence of language and communication (Richards and Rodgers, 1986:66).
The emphasis on the communication makes the proponents of this approach pay attention to functional as well as structural aspects of language. it is believed that no single set of procedures or texts that is accepted as typical procedures of Communicative Language Teaching. The first concept suggests that language items are presented in situations in the classroom to ensure that their meaning is clear, and then practiced as formal structures by means of exercises of sufficient variety to sustain the interest of the learner and in sufficient numbers to establish the structures in the learner's memory (Widdowson, 1983:117-8). This concept of Communicative Language Teaching is not regarded as the right assumption of Communicative Language Teaching since the aim of communicative teaching is not only the ability to compose correct sentences but also the ability to communicate.
The second concept seems to be not only aim of Communicative Language Teaching. Language learners should do more than working in-groups to learn to use the language in communication. The concept of Communicative Language Teaching can be traced back by looking at the concept of communication itself. Widdowson (1983:118) states that communication only takes place when we make use of sentences to perform a variety of different acts of an essentially social nature and we use sentences to make statements of different kinds, to describe , to record, to classify, and so on, or to ask questions, make requests, give orders. It implies that language teaching should be contextualized by presenting language items in situational settings in the class room. The purpose of English teaching is to develop in the students an awareness of the ways in which th e language system is used to express scientific facts and concepts. Their idea suggests that the target language be used in an immersion program in order for the teaching of the target language to be communicative.

METHOD
Descriptively, data can be collected either by field research or library research. In this analysis the writer only concerns with one descriptive technique of collecting data, i.e. library research. Library research is done by selecting various books that are relevant to the analysis. The examples used in the analysis is taken from some source, such as textbook and other sources. The writer tries to choose and select the examples, as familiar as possible.
Method Research based of Qualitative Research . Library Research and translate some reference books. The manner of data can be library do translate some books. Qualitative Analysis based of form theory explanation so that some explain can be conclusion and discussion. By doing this, she hopes that the readers will understand them easily.

Result Will Be Achieved
1. This method indicate that Result will be achieved very good or give hope bright in next period. In The Communicative approach students we will use structures and vocabulary are important. 2. This primary skills to be developed are communication, listening, reading and writing 3. The goal is to have one's students become communicatively competent, hardly any 4. attention is paid to speaking and listening skills. 5. Analysis can be useful specially for the Students in Learning English to master the language competence and for the lecturer in helping their students understand how to learn English. The readers' suggestions are highly appreciat ed to improve the performance and quality of this Analysis.

Principles Of Communicative Language Teaching
To develop the procedures of teaching, language teachers may consider the underlying principles of Communicative Language Teaching by different authors. However, different writers have different stresses of the principles of Communicative Language Teaching. Howatt (cited in Richards and Rodgers, 1986: 66) states that there are a strong version and a weak version of Communicative Language Teaching : The weak version of Communicative Language Teaching stresses the importance of providing learners with opportunities to use their English for rget communicative purpose and, characteristically, attempts to integrate such activities into a wider program of language teaching ……The strong version of communicative teaching, on the other hand, advances the claim that language is acquired through communication…….If the former could be described as 'learning to use' English, the later entails ' using English to learn it'.
The two different versions need not be contrasted. Communicative Language Teaching principles may be a continue.
One side of the interval of Communicative Language Teaching is the weak version and the other side of the interval is the strong version. The procedure developed based on the principles of the weak version of Communicative Language Teaching may be the starting point of teaching a foreign language communicatively. Then, the procedure of Communicative Language Teaching ends with the activities developed based on the strong version of Communicative Language Teaching.
Language teachers should be selective in correcting errors. They should provide their students with opportunities to express their ideas in the target language and the target language is used as a vehicle for communication in the classroom. The goal of teaching a foreign language is the actual use of language in real situations. This is a response to traditional methods that are concerned with what so called linguistic competence. Reading and writing are deferred till speech is mastered The target linguistic system will be learned best through the process. The target linguistic system will be learned through the overt teaching of the patterns of the system. Communicative competence is the desired goal Linguistic competence is the desired goal.

Finacchiaro and
Linguistic variation is a central concept in materials and methodology Varieties of language are recognized but not emphasized.
Sequencing is determined by any consideration of content , function, or meaning which maintains interest.
The sequence of units is determined solely by principles of linguistic complexity.
Teacher help learners in any way that motivate them to work with the language.
Teachers control learners and prevent them from doing anything that conflicts with the theory. Language is created by the individual often through trial and error. " language is habit " so errors must be prevented at all costs. Fluency and acceptable language is the primary goal : accuracy is Accuracy, in terms of formal correctness, is a primary goal. judged not in the abstract but in context. Students are expected to interact with other people, either in the flesh, through pair and group work, or in their writings Students are expected to interact with the language system, embodied in machines or controlled materials.
The teacher cannot know exactly what language the students will use.
The teacher is expected to specify the language that students are to use. Intrinsic motivation will spring from an interest in what is being communicated by the language.
Intrinsic motivation will spring from an interest in the structure of the language.

Assumptions About Language
Communicative Language Teaching has a rich theoretical base at the level of language theory( Richards and Rodgers' s view ,1986:71). At least four basic assumptions about language are proposed. 1. 1.Language is a system for the expression of meaning 2. 2.The primary function of language is for interaction and communication. 3. 3.The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses. 4. 4.The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features, but categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse. The four basic assumptions of language suggest what aspects of the language should be taught, how language should be presented in language class and how language competence should be evaluated.
The four assumptions mentioned above seem to derive from a single theory that emphasizes the use of language in daily life for practical reason; communication.
There are some other types of syllabus that can be implemented in Communucative Language Teaching, namely : functional spiral around a structural core, structural, functional, and instrumental syllabus, functional syllabus , notional syllabus, Interactional syllabus, task-based syllabus, and learner generated syllabus (Richards and Rogers, 1986:74) First, the concept of pass fail loses much its forces; every candidate can be assessed in terms of what he can do. Of course some will be able to do more than others, and it may be decide for administrative reasons that at certain level of proficiency is necessary for the awarding of a particular certificate. But because of the operational nature of the test, even low scores can be shown what they have achieved.
Secondly, language performance can be differentially assessed in different communicative areas. The idea of 'profile reporting", whereby a candidate is given different scores on, ex .speaking , reading, writing and listening test is not new, but it is particularly attractive in an operational context where scores can be related to specific communicative objectives.
The third implication is perhaps the most farreaching. The importance of specifying the communicative criteria in terms of which assessment is being offered means that examining bodies will have to draw up, and probably publish, specifications of the types of operation they intend to test, the content area to which they will relate and the criteria which will be adopted in assessment.

Assumptions About Language Learning
They are in the process of learning to convey meanings by using the language. The problem that language learners are not yet able to use the language for communication need alternative techniques of Communicative Language Teaching. The weak version Communicative Language Teaching discussed above could be the answer to this problem.
A principle that may be regarded as another assumption about language learning in CLT is that grammar and vocabulary the students learn from the function, situational context, and the roles of the interlocutors (Larsen-Freeman,1986:130). Larsen -Freeman provides an example of the assumption By observing a class taught through CLT that after the roleplay is finished the students elicit relevant vocabulary. This seems in accordance with the first assumption that the emphasis of teaching a language is communication. After communication, as well as games and role play, is finished the students may discuss the elements of the language; grammar and vocabulary. The elements of the language come later after the first priority of language teaching communication is over.
The structural views sees language as a system of structurally related elements. The functional view regards language as a vehicle for the expression of functional meaning. The view emphasizes not only elements of grammar as the structural view does but also topics or concepts that language learners need to communicate about. The third view is the interactional view, the view that language is a vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relations and social interactions between individuals. The three different views of the nature of language will lead people to have different assumptions about language is and finally will produce different methods in language teaching.

3.4
Some Misconceptions About Communica Tive Language Teaching Thompson(1994) identifies three main misconceptions about communicative language teaching. He states that a number of applied linguist have argued strongly and in theoretically persuasive terms that the grammar teaching should be avoid since the knowledge that a speaker needs in order to use a language is simply too complex. The second misconception about Communicative Language Teaching that Thompson (1994:11-12) identifies is that Communicative Language Teaching emphasizes speaking and listening skills and ignores written language. He acknowledges that the learners are probably likely to talk more in a successful Communicative Language Teaching class than in classes using traditional methods. The third misconceptions is that the proponents of CLT often considers that role -play is the signal that the implementation of Communicating Language Teaching principles. Roleplay is a useful technique of CLT but the activities in playing roles are not necessarily the learning processes suggested in Communicative Language Teaching. In teaching a foreign language communicatively, pair work and role play should provide opportunity for the learners to choose what to say and how to say it. Learners should be given the opportunity to learn the target language and to learn how to make choices. Language teachers of Communicative Language Teaching should not control over students' learning all the time. Misconception about Communicative Language Teaching may happen everywhere. Misconceptions are really understandable since CLT is an open approach. Different people will interpret the principles of the approach in different ways depending on their perceptions and experiences. It is likely that CLT will be modified based on the situation and setting where it is implemented. If it is so, there will be no single interpretation of CLT even though different people may have something in common about communicative approaches and communicative processes.

Procedures of Teaching Language through Communicative Language Teaching
Even though little has been written about theories of language learning underlying the principles of CLT as stated earlier, some writers suggest some techniques or procedures in the classroom that can support the goal of communicative teaching. The following Principles are tips worth considering in Communicative teaching suggested by Larsen -Freeman (1986 : 128-130).
1. Whenever possible language as it used in real context should be introduced. 2. The target language is a vehicle for classroom communication, not just the object of study. 3. Students should work with language at the discourse level. 4. Games are important because they have in common with real communicative events. 5. Students should be given an opportunity to express their ideas and opinions. 6. One of the teacher' s major responsibilities is to establish situations likely to promote communication. 7. The social context of the communicative event is essential in giving meaning to the utterances. 8. Learning to use language forms appropriately is an important part of communicative competence. 9. The teacher acts as an advisor during communicative activities. 10. Students should be given opportunities to develop strategies for interpreting language as it is actually used by native speakers. The Communicative Language Teaching classroom procedure below is the one suggested by Finocchiaro and Brumfit.
1. Presentation of a brief dialog or several minidialogs, precede by a motivation (relating the dialog situation(s) to the learners' probable community experiences) and a discussion of the function and situationpeople, roles, setting, topic, and the informality or formality of the language which the function and situation demand. (at the beginning levels, where all the learners understand the same native language, the motivation can well be given in their native tongue). 2. Oral practice of each utterance of the dialog segment to be presented that day (entire class repetition, half class, groups, and individuals) generally preceded by your model. If mini-dialogs are used, engage in similar practice 3. Questions and answers based on the dialog topics (s) and situations itself. (inverted wh, or or questions 4. Questions and answers related to the students' personal experiences but centered around the dialog theme,. 5. Study one of the basic communicative expressions in the dialog or one of the structures which exemplify the function. You will wish to give several additional examples of the communicative use of the expression structure with familiar vocabulary in unambiguous utterance or mini -dialogs (using pictures, simple real objects, or dramatization) to clarify the meaning of the expression or structure. 6. Learner discovery of generalizations or rules underlying the functional expression or structure. This should include at least four points, e.g. (" How about + verb + ing ?"); its position in the utterance; its formality or informality in the utterance; and in the case of a structure, its grammatical function and meaning. 7. Oral recognition, interpretative activities (two to five depending on the learning level, the language knowledge of the students, and related factors). 8. Oral production activities -proceeding from the guided to free communication activities. 9. Copying of the dialog or mini-dialogs or modules if they are not in the class text. 10. Sampling of the written homework assignment, if given. 11. Evaluation of learning (oral only),e.g. " How would you ask your friend to --------? And how would you ask me to ---------? (cited in Richards and Rodgers, 1986 : 81). The activities od the Communicative Language Teaching procedure mentioned above seem not be exclusive to CLT classrooms. The procedure may be classified as the application of the weak version of CLT of teaching the oral language.
The following is one of the basic procedures in teaching writing suggested by Finocchiaro and Brumfit (1983:151) 1. Motivate the material by giving a brief summary or by asking preliminary questions relevant to the theme of the passage. 2. Clarify any difficulty. 3. Review the procedure you will follow. 4. Read the material through two times at normal speed. 5. Ask a question two times. Give the students time to write the answer. 6. Continue until you have given all the questions. 7. Read the passage or conversation again at normal speed. 8. Say the questions again. 9. Give the students about two minutes to check their own work and to make necessary changes. 10. Correct the material as in the dictation. Among the many activities which will promote our students' listening ability are the following (Finocchiaro and Brumfit : 1983: 138-54)

Experience
The teacher greets the class and distributes a handout. There is writing on both sides. On one side is a copy of a sports column from a recent newspaper. The reporter discusses who thinks will win the World Cup. The teacher asks the students to read it and then to underline the predictions the reporter has made. He gives them these and all other directions in the target language. When the students have finished, they read what they have underlined. The teacher writes the predictions on the blackboard. Then he and the students discuss which predictions the reporter feels more certain about and which predictions he feels less certain about.
Malaysia is very likely to win the World Cup this year. Italy can win if they play as well as they have lately. Czechoslovakia probably won't be a contender. England may have an outside chance.
Then he asks the students to look at the first sentence and to tell the class another way to express this same prediction. One student says, " Malaysia probably will win The World Cup." "Yes," says the teacher, " Any others ?" No one responds. The teacher offers, " Malaysia is almost certain to win the World Cup. ". " What about the next ?" He asks the class. One student replies, " It is possible that Italy will win the World Cup." Another student offers, "There's a possibility that Italy will win the World Cup." Each of the reporter's prediction is discussed in this manner. All the paraphases the students suggest are evaluated by the teacher and the other students to make sure they convey the same degree of certainty as the reporter's original prediction. Next, the teacher asks the students to turn to other side of the handout. On it are all the sentences of the article that they have been working on. They are, however, out of order. For example, the first two sentences on this side of the handout are : England may have an outside chance. In the final analysis, the winning team may simply be the one with the most experience.
The first sentence was in the middle of the original sports column. The second was the last sentence of the original column. The teacher tells the students to unscramble the sentence, to put them in their proper order once again. When they finish, the students compare what they have done with the original on the other side of the handout.

Reviewing The Techniques
There may be aspects of the Communicative Teaching that you find appealing. This review has been provided in the event you wish to try to use any of the techniques or material associated with the Communicative Language Teaching.

Authentic Materials
To overcome the typical problem that students can't transfer what they learn in the classroom to the outside world and to expose students to natural language in a variety of situations., adherents, of the Communicative Language Teaching the use of authentic language materials. In this lesson we see that the teacher uses a copy of genuine newspaper article.He also assigns the students homework, requiring they listen to a live radio or television broadcast. Of course, the class that we observed was at the high intermediate level of proficiency. Another possibility for the use of authentic materials with a lower level class is to use realy that do not contain a lot of language, but about which a lot of discussion could be generated. Menus in the target language are an example.,timetables are another.

Scrambled Sentences
The students are given a passage (a text) in which the sentences are in a scrambled order. This may be a passage they have worked with or one they haven't seen before. They are told to unscrambled the sentences so that the sentences are restored to their original order. This type of exercise teaches students about the cohesion and coherence properties of language.
They learn how sentences are bound together at the suprasentential level through formal linguistic devices such as anaphoric pronouns, which make a text cohesive, and semantic propositions, which unify a text and make it coherent.In addition to written passages, students might also be asked to unscrambled the lines of a mixed-up dialog. Or they might be asked to put the pictures of a picture strip story in order and write lines to accompany the pictures.

Language Games
Games are used frequently in the Communicative Language Teaching.
The students find them enjoyable, and if they are properly designed, they give students valuable communicative practice. Games that are truly communicative, according to Morrow (in Johnson and Morrow 1981), have the three features of communication : information gap, choice, and feedback. These three features were manifest in the card game we observed in the following way: An information gap existed because the speaker did not know what her classmate was going to do the following weekend. The speaker had a choice as to what she would predict (which sport) and how she would predict it(which form her prediction would take). The speaker received feedback from the members of her group. If her prediction was incomprehensible, then none of the members of her group would respond. If she got a meaningful response, she could presume her prediction was understood.

Picture Strip Story
Many activities can be done with picture strip stories. We suggested one in our discussion of scrambled sentences. In the activity we observed, one student in a small group was given a strip story. She showed the first picture of the story to the other members of her group and asked them to predict what the second picture would look like. An information gap existedthe students in the groups did not know what the picture contained.
They had a choice as to what their prediction would be and how they would word it. They received feedback, not on the form but on the content of the prediction, by being able to view the picture and compare it with their prediction. The activity just described is an example of using a problem solving task as a communicative technique. Problem solving tasks work well in the Communicative Language Teaching because they usually include the three features of communication.
What's more, they can be structured so that students share information or work together to arrive at a solution. This gives students practice in negotiating meaning.

Role-play
Role-plays are very important in the Communicative Language Teaching because they give students an opportunity to practice communicating in different social contexts and in different social roles. Role-plays can be set up so that they are very structured. (for example, the teacher tell the students who they are and what they should say) or in a less structured way (for example, the teacher tells the students who they are, what the situation is, and what they are talking about, but the students determine what they will say). The latter is more in keeping with the Communicative Language Teaching, of course, because it gives the students more of a chose.
Notice that role-plays structured like this also provide information gaps since students can be sure (as with most forms of communication) what the other person or people will say (there's a natural unpredictability). Students also receive feedback on whether or not they have effectively communicated.

Thinking About The Technique
Perhaps the greatest contribution of the Communicative Language Teaching as approach is asking teachers to look closely at what is involved in communication. If teachers intend students to use the target language, then they must truly understand all that being communicatively competent entails. Do you agree with this expanded view of communicative competence ? Is achieving communicative competence a goal for which you should prepare your students ? Would you adopt a functional syllabus ? Should a variety of language forms be presented at one time ? Are there times when you would emphasize fluency over accuracy ? Do these or any other principles of the Communicative Language Teaching make sense to you ? Would you ever use language games, problem-solving tasks, or role-plays ? Should all your activities include the three features of communication ? Should authentic language be used ? Are there any other technique or materials of the Communicative Language Teaching as approach that you would find useful.

CONCLUSION
1. The goal is to have one's students become communicatively competent while this has been the stated goal of many of the other methods, in the Communicative Language Teaching as approach the notion of what it takes to be communicatively competent is much expanded. Communicative competence involves being able to use the language appropriate to a given social context. 2. The teacher is a facilitator of his students' learning. As such he has many roles to fulfill.
He is a manager of classroom activities. In this role, one of his major responsibilities is to establish situations likely to promote communication.
During the activities he acts as an advisor, answering students' questions and monitoring their performance. At other times he might be a " cocommunicator"-engaging in the communicative activity along with the students (Littlewood 1981). Students are, above all, communicators. 3. Student use the language a great deal through communicative activities such as game, role-plays, and problemsolving tasks(see discuss in of these in the review of techniques) True communication is purposeful. Another characteristic of the communicative as approach is use of authentic materials. It is considered desirable to give students an opportunity to develop strategy for understanding language as it is actually used by native speakers. Finally, we noted that activities in the Communicative Language Teaching as approach are often carried out by students in small groups. 4. The teacher is the initiator of the activities, but he does not always himself interact with the students. Sometimes he is co-communicator, but more often he establishes situations that prompt communication between and among the students. Students interact a great deal with one another. They doo this in various configurations : pairs, triads, small groups, and whole group. 5. A teacher evaluates not only his students' accuracy, but also their fluency. The student who has the most control of the structures and vocabulary is not always the best communicator.
A teacher can informally evaluate his students' performance in his role as an advisor or co-communicator. For more evaluation, a teacher is likely to use a communicative test (for extensive discussion of communicative test. (Masde,1983). This is an integrative test which has a real communicative function. in order, assess their writing